Overview


 * The Concept of Learning **

The terms **instrumental** or **operant conditioning** describe methods of teaching an animal to repeat or end a specific behavior. In order to better understand the ideas behind these teaching concepts, one should be aware of the importance of **//learning//** in the field of behavioral psychology. "Learning evolved as a means for organisms to adapt to changing environments. Whatever the underlying mechanisms involved in learning, they need to be universal and applicable across the phylogenetic scale" (Terry, 2009, p. 88). All animals and humans alike have evolved the ability to learn. Learning plays such a large part in behavioral psychology because it prompted scientists such as Edward Lee Thorndike and B.F. Skinner to study the mechanisms of learning and how it occurs, which you will read about later.


 * What is Instrumental Conditioning? **

Instrumental conditioning, (or operant conditioning) is a key component of behavioral psychology. "In instrumental or operant conditioning, a contingency is arranged between a motivationally significant stimulus and a specific behavior. As a result of experience with the contingencies, the animal learns the consequences of its actions" (Abramson, 1994, p. 149).

For instrumental or operant conditioning to take place, a stimulus such as a reinforcement or punishment needs to be present. A reinforcement is defined as "an incentive for certain behaviors" while a punishment is defined as an aversive stimulus that aim to decrease the frequency of a behavior (Terry, 2009). These reinforcements or punishments may either be positive or negative:


 * **Positive Reinforcement**: Adding a desirable stimulus to promote a behavior.
 * **Negative Reinforcement**: Removing an undesirable stimulus to promote a behavior.
 * **Positive Punishment**: Adding an undesirable stimulus to stop a behavior
 * **Negative Punishment**: Removing a desirable stimulus to stop a behavior.

The following video provides brief examples of all 4 types of these stimuli. media type="youtube" key="nTXPY26W5TA" width="420" height="315" align="center"


 * Instrumental Conditioning in Everyday Life **

Whether we realize it or not, learning in the form of instrumental or operant conditioning plays an enormous role in our daily lives, and in the lives of animals as well. "Everyday examples of such conditioning are so numerous that it is easy to forget that much of human behavior is controlled by its consequences. Most people, for instance, can can readily identify acts performed to maximize pleasure and minimize pain" (Abramson, 1994, p. 152).

Throughout history, many psychologists have done experiments to learn more about instrumental conditioning and its impact on how we learn. Visit the next page, Key Contributors, to learn more about these psychologists and their experiments.